https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow
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In a double rainbow, a second arc is seen outside the primary arc, and has the order of its colours reversed, with red on the inner side of the arc. This is caused by the light being reflected twice on the inside of the droplet before leaving it.
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Even two decades ago, asking a statistician a question like “Was it the aspirin that stopped my headache?” would have been like asking if he believed in voodoo. To quote an esteemed colleague of mine, it would be “more of a cocktail conversation topic than a scientific inquiry.” But today, epidemiologists, social scientists, computer scientists, and at least some enlightened economists and statisticians pose such questions routinely and answer them with mathematical precision.
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Ironically, the need for a theory of causation began to surface at the same time that statistics came into being. In fact, modern statistics hatched from the causal questions that Galton and Pearson asked about heredity and their ingenious attempts to answer them using
cross-generational data. Unfortunately, they failed in this endeavor, and rather than pause to ask why, they declared those questions off …
This was a critical moment in the history of science. The opportunity to equip causal questions with a language of their own came very close to being realized but was squandered. In the following years, these questions were declared unscientific and went underground. Despite heroic efforts by the geneticist Sewall Wright (1889–1988), causal vocabulary was virtually prohibited for more than half a century. And when you prohibit speech, you prohibit thought and stifle principles, methods, and tools. Readers do not have to be scientists to witness this prohibition. In Statistics 101, every student learns to chant, “Correlation is not causation.” With good reason! The rooster’s crow is highly correlated with the sunrise; yet it does not cause the sunrise. Unfortunately, statistics has fetishized this commonsense observation.
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The rest of statistics, including the many disciplines that looked to it for guidance, remained in the Prohibition era, falsely believing that the answers to all scientific questions reside in the data, “}}
Quote from Pg. 192 of the hardcover version of
She Has Her Mother’s Laugh: The Powers, Perversions, and Potential of Heredity by Carl Zimmer:
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It took a couple of weeks for Mark Gerstein to work over my genome. He and his students wanted to analyze the short fragments of DNA with their own software and create their own map. Once they had pinned down the location of the vast majority of Illumina’s fragments, they could then determine which variants I carried. ….
The Nigerian and the Chinese had a similar number of single-nucleotide polymorphisms. But those variants did not distinguish the three of us in any clear way. Sushant Kumar, a postdoctoral researcher in Gerstein’s lab, made me a Venn diagram to drive the point home. … “}}
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